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A MOSQUE IN MUNICH: NAZIS, THE CIA, AND THE RISE OF THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD IN THE WEST

Prologue

page

xiii A peculiar map of the world: Published by the Islamic Foundation, which is headquartered in the English town of Markfield, this map is discussed in Chapter 14.

1 "Leaf of Eastern tree"; This is the first stanza of "Gingko Biloba," from Goethe's West-Eastern Divan. The next two stanzas of the poem are found on the opening pages of the sections entitled "Cold Wars" and "Modern Wars."

1. The Eastern Front

3 Garip Sultan: He was born Garif Sultan, 28 September 1923. For an explanation of his name change, see pages 46-47. The words of the German officer are as he remembers them; they could not be independently verified. All actions and feelings are as he described them in interviews on 27 January 2005, 9 March 2005, 28 March 2006, and 31 May 2006, in Munich. See also Garip Sultan, Die Grundung der Wolga-Tatarischen Legion.

Sultan's military service is also confirmed by U.S. intelligence documents found in NARA RG 319, Garip Sultan Personal File Folder XE615072. According to this information, he went to officer training school in Frolow near Stalingrad, was commissioned as a second lieutenant, and served in the 272nd Infantry Division.

The Tatars had lost: The Tatars are traditionally described as descendants of the Golden Horde, but their history is more complicated. Anthropologists such as Greta Lynn Uehling (Beyond Memory: The Crimean Tatars' Deportation and Re turn, pp. 30-31) believe they also in part stemmed from the Sunni Muslim peoples indigenous to the region who had settled there well before the Mongolian invasion. The traditional history given in this chapter is a shorthand, in part because this is how the people in this book and their contemporaries thought of the Tatars -- as people with a proud, even fierce history.

6 The Red Army's colossal collapse: Alexander Dallin (German Rule in Russia: A Study in Occupation Politics, p. 69) estimates that the Germans had taken up to four million Soviet prisoners by the end of 1941. Others, such as Alex Alexei (Soviet Nationalities in German Wartime Strategy, 1941-1945, p. 8), say three million. I have chosen the lower number.

8 Kayum visited a Muslim prisoner-of-war camp: The soldier's quotation on dying, Kayum's address to soldiers, and the report of the meeting with Hayit are taken from Stephen L. Crane, Survivor from an Unknown War: The Life of Isakjan Narzikul, pp. 77-95. The book is a memoir, and the citations are given as a young Uzbek soldier, Isakjan Narzikul, remembered them and related them to Crane. Narzikul died in 1989.

Shot by Nazi liquidation squads: Richard Breitman, Architect of Genocide: Himmler and the Final Solution, pp. 180-81. See also Crane, p. 74, and Dallin, p. 418.

9 "You are the foundation": Regarding Hayit's address, see Crane, p. 94.

The famous Chah-I-Zindeh mosque: See Antonio J. Munoz, Forgotten Legions: Obscure Combat Formations of the Waffen-SS, p. 172, for a photo showing a soldier with this patch. Crane (p. 169) includes a photo of a plaque with the same mosque but the phrase slightly changed to Allah biz Bilen.

Operation Tiger B: German federal archives in Koblenz, cited in Joachim Hoffmann, Die Ostlegionen, 1941-1943, p. 27.

Formations of Cossacks: OKH/GenStdH/GenQu an Befh Hgeb Sud, Mitte, Nord, 6. 10. 1941 (BA-MA, RH 22/V. 198), cited in Hoffmann, p. 21.

10 "I am a Muslim": Sebastian Cwiklinski, Wolgatataren im Deutschland des Zweiten Weltkriegs: Deutsche Ostpolitik und tatarischer Nationalismus, p. 38. The person doing the survey was Ahmet Temir, who worked for von Mende (ibid., p. 36).

Two Turkish generals: They were Ali Fuad Erden, a member of parliament and the former head of the Turkish General Staff Academy, and Hussein Erkilet, a prominent pan-Turkist.

Troops were also lightly armed: Hoffmann, p. 173.

Turks, Caucasians, and Cossacks: Dallin estimates 153, 000 (p. 540); Hoffmann says 250, 000 (p. 172). Patrik von zur Muhlen (Zwischen Hakenkreuz und Sowjetstern: Der Nationalismus der sowjetischen Orientvolker im Zweiten Weltkrieg, p. 72) estimates that approximately one million Soviet citizens served, of whom 300, 000 were Muslims. Similar estimates are found in Hoffmann (p. 11) and Alexiev (p. 4).

An exception was made for "Turkic peoples": Hoffmann, p. 24.

11 "I consider only the Mohammedans": The exact quotation in German reads as follows: "Fur sicher halte ich nur die Mohammedaner. Alle anderen halte ich nicht fur sicher. Das kann uns uberall passieren, da muß man wahnsinnig vorsichtig sein. Ich halte das Aufstellen von Bataillonen dieser rein kaukasischen Volker zunachst fur sehr riskant, wahrend ich keine Gefahr darin sehe, wenn man tatsachlich rein mohammedanische Einheiten aufstellt." Cited in Helmut Heiber, ed., Hitlers Lagebesprechungen: Die Protokollfragmente seiner militurischen Konferenzen, 1942-1945, p. 73.

11 The Warsaw city uprising: Narzikul wrote this, as recorded in Crane, p. 144. He implausibly argues that they spent their time helping partisans and saving women by taking them as lovers.

The Tatar liaison office: This discussion of Unglaube's affinity for the Tatars is drawn from Unglaube's unpublished autobiography, in the author's possession.

12 His destination: the Ostministerium: Information on Sultan's encounter with Unglaube is based on my interviews with Sultan. This meeting between the two men is confirmed in Cwiklinski (p. 40). Unglaube's words are as Sultan remembers them.

2. The Turkologist

13 The term Silk Road: This term was also used in the Byzantine era, although credit for coining it is usually given to the geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen. The explorer Albert von LeCoq contributed many archaeological treasures to the Museum fur Volkerkunde, as it is referred to in German.

14 The first modern use of jihad: Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, "Die Berliner Djihadisierung des Islams."

Gerhard von Mende: Biographical details have been drawn from personnel files, including a handwritten autobiography archived at Humboldt University, Berlin (UAHUB M 138 Bd. 1, resume of 16 November 1939) and interviews with Ehrenfried Schutte (27 January 2005, Munich), Erling von Mende (31 January 2005, Berlin), Baymirza Hayit (25 October 2004, Cologne), and Sultan (27 January and 9 March 2005, and 28 March and 31 May 2006, Munich).

15 Determined to succeed: Herrad Schenk, Wie in einem uferlosen Strom: Das Leben meiner Eltern, pp. 214, 221.

The historian Otto Hoetzsch: Karl Schlogel, "The Futility of One Professor's Life: Otto Hoetzsch and German Russian Studies," Sketches of Europe.

16 Marrying Karo Espeseth: Espeseth, in Livet Gikk Videre (Life Went On), pp. 83-84, describes how she initially drove von Mende away through her erratic behavior.

The postwar outburst of creativity: Ibid., p. 100.

Sullying the young nation's honor: See Espeseth, Sar som ennu blor (Sores That Still Bleed), and Ellen Rees, "Sores That Still Bleed: Germany, the Great War, and Violence Against Women in the Modernist Literary Imagination," in Conquering Women: Women and War in the German Cultural Imagination, pp. 62-75.

17 "Because of the strict political unity": Gerhard von Mende, Der Nationale Kampf der Rußlandturken: Ein Beitrag zur nationalen Frage in der Sovetunion, p.184.

18 He had joined the SA: For von Mende's reasons for joining, then leaving the SA, see Espeseth, Livet Gikk Videre, pp. 99-100. Also, the von Mende resume (undated "Lebenslauf") at UAHUB M 138 Bd. 3 Bl. 1.

19 "There should, according to my view": Quotations from the evaluation of 19 August 1937, in UAHUB M 138Bd. 3 Bl. 1. Thanks to Ingo Loose for his interpretation of von Niedermayer's comments. Loose, "Berliner Wissenschaftler im 'Osteinsatz: 1939-1945: Akademische Mobilitat zwischen Berliner Universitat und Reichsuniversitat Posen." Die Berliner Universitut in der NS-Zeit, Bd. 1: Strukturen und Personen, pp. 62-63.

Follow the party line: For von Niedermayer's Nazi leanings, see Hans-Ulrich Seidt, Berlin Kabul Moskau: Oskar Ritter von Niedermayer und Deutschlands Geopolitik, pp. 271ff.

His letters show: For example, letter of 2 May 1938, UAHUB M 138Bd. 3 Bl. 1.

The Adolf-Hitler-Schule: Letter of 16 March 1938, UAHUB M 138Bd. 3 Bl. 1.

Regular contact with Georg Leibbrandt: Letter of 7 October 1940, UAHUB M 138Bd. 3 Bl. 1.

She didn't like the Nazis: Espeseth, Livet Gikk Videre, p. 124.

Published by the Anti-Komintern: Letter of 6 May 1938, in Humboldt Archive, cited in Cwiklinski, p. 14.

20 About a Jewish colleague: Letter of 28 June (probably 1940) about Dr. Friedrich Levi, UAHUB M 138Bd. 3 Bl. 1.

The Peoples of the Soviet Union: Gerhard von Mende, Die Volker der Sowjetunion (Reichenau/Saale: Rudolf Schneider Verlag, 1939).

21 Old contact in the Nazis' Foreign Office: Cwiklinski, p. 14.

The coveted rank of full professor: Letter of 27 November 1941, UAHUB M 138 Bd. 3 Bl. 1. The letter was signed by Hitler, but it was standard for high-ranking civil servants to be appointed by the head of state.

3. The Nazi Prototype

23 An old friend of Hitler's: Rosenberg biographical notes taken from Dallin, pp.24-26.

24 "The strong separatist movement": The quotation from Rosenberg is taken from Der Zukunjtsweg, p. 93, cited in Dallin, p. 47.

An anti-Soviet movement called Prometheus: Roman Smal-Stocky, "The Struggle of the Subjugated Nations in the Soviet Union for Freedom: Sketch of the History of the Promethean Movement." The Ukrainian Quarterly; Stephen Dorril, MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations, pp. 184ff. On efforts to deploy Prometheans in Manchuria, see Jeffrey Burds, "The Soviet War Against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942-44." Journal of Contemporary History.

25 The death of Mustafa Chokay: Chokay is the Anglicized version of Coqayoglu. also known in Russian as Chokaev. Another Anglicization is Chokai.

He had been helping: In the 1930s Kayum had written reports for Georg Leibbrandt of the NSDAP's Foreign Office. Cwiklinski. p. 14.

Von Mende's boss in the Ostministerium: Dallin. p. 266, and von zur Muhlen, p. 79. Dallin writes: "Von Mende became in effect the master of the Ostministerium's nationality policy, embarking on a drive for the recognition of separatist 'national committees,' primarily for the non-Slavic groups."

25 Emerged from the shakeup unscathed: Based on interviews with Turkestani leaders, such as Nasar, 10 May 2006, Washington, DC.

26 Sultan arrived in Berlin: Interviews with Sultan.

The results were sensational: Tatar recruitment statistics are from Hoffmann, P·42.

Newspapers crucial to the effort: Ibid., pp. 128-29.

Overseen by the Wehrmacht's: Cwiklinski, p. 50.

27 Idel'-Ural anti-Semitic statements. Idel'-Ural, No. 18, 6 May 1944, p. 4, cited in Cwiklinski, p. 81.

The high percentage of "German" topics: Sultan, p. 26, cited in Cwiklinski, p.82.

Musa Galil, a prominent poet: Biographical details can be found in Cwiklinski, PP·70-73.

Sultan was considered for the top post: Von zur Muhlen, p. 99.

28 Jews and other undesirables: GHWK, documents T/299 and T/300, from "The trial of Adolf Eichmann: Record of proceedings in the District Court of Jerusalem."

Another person who attended the conference and played a role in the Munich mosque was Otto Brautigam, who would serve in the West German Foreign Office, rising to high rank and occasionally helping von Mende shepherd his projects related to the Muslims.

The Harvard historian Alexander Dallin: Dallin's characterization of von Mende appears on p. 558 of his book.

The Karainen were protected: Kiril Feferman, "Nazi Germany and the Mountain Jews: Was There a Policy?" Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Thanks to Richard Breitman for pointing out this paper.

29 "I still think back with some horror": Letter of 24 August 1951, von Mende papers.

Tossing him in the air: The general was Ernst Kostring. Dallin, p. 246.

30 Parroted Nazi slogans: Milli Turkistan, No. 15, p. 9, as cited in Dallin, p. 275.

Brutally denouncing the dissidents: Von zur Muhlen, p. 97, citing 26 January 1945 document from BA, NS 31/30.

Turkestani congress in Vienna: Dallin, p. 610.

Destroyed in an air raid: Espeseth, Livet Gikk Videre, p. 190.

31 Fears that they were religious fanatics: Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 3, 5 February 1952, "Transmission Memorandum of Conversation with Professor Gerhard von Mende, German Turcologist," p. 7. Identifying agency markers have been removed, but judging from the content, this is likely a Department of State cable.

The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Hoover, Dallin collection, box 1, folder 16, letter of 19 November 1953, von Mende to Dallin.

32 Set up mullah schools: Hoffmann, p. 169.

"Recognize" the national committees: Dallin, p. 654.

Tatars set up a provisional government: Cwiklinski, pp. 55-56.

Head of the military department: German federal military archives, cited in Cwiklinski, p. 55.

4. Reviving the Ostministerium

35 Munich was a ruined city: James Critchlow, Radio Hole-in-the-Head/Radio Liberty: An Insiders Story of Cold War Broadcasting, pp. 2-4, and Gaither Stewart, Govar Killian, excerpted at http://southerncrossreview.org/29/stewart-excerpt.htm. Statistics on rubble and U.S. army help from Wolfram Selig, Chronik der Stadt Munchen, 1945-1948, p. 43.

37 "Center of subversion": Critchlow, p. 87.

Ideal home for Radio Liberty: History of Radio Liberty, including the quotation on "democratic elements." from Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 5, "Biographical Sketch of Robert F. Kelley."

38 "I would look out the window": Critchlow, p. 4.

"We sometimes ate": Ibid., pp. 2-3.

Young, idealistic people: Critchlow's biographical details taken from Critchlow, PP·50-54.

40 The NSC was to advise: The NSC directive on covert operations was NSC 1012. Cited in Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad, p. 39.

"Don't be afraid of that term": Ibid., p. 46.

41 Half the CIA budget: The broader mandate and the budget estimates are from Osgood, pp. 96-97.

The U.S. Information Agency alone spent: Figures are from "Draft Report on the Roles of Attributed and Unattributed Information and the Division of Responsibility Between the USIA and CIA." 22 April 1960, DDEL Sprague Committee, box 20, PCIAA#2, declassified 2 October 2007, MORI DocID: 1473135.

Half a billion dollars per year: Osgood, p. 90. One fifth of that, $100 million, was spent by the USIA.

Radio Liberty's parent: For its roots in the Truman administration, see NSC policy planning staff memorandum "The inauguration of organized political warfare." 4 May 1948, document 269, http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/ history/intel/260_269.html.

43 On covert propaganda missions: Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: Americas Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 129.

U.S. government involvement: Hoover, Radio Liberty General Vol. C, "Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee [subsequently the Management Policy and Program Advisory Committees)." 28 April 1954.

In 1955 its budget: Hoover, Radio Liberty Corp. Minutes Vol. II, 1955-66, Fiscal year statements 1955, 1960, 1961, and 1963. Other years are missing.

In general, Amcomlib was spending about $350, 000 each year on the institute and $125, 000 each year on emigre groups -- excluding the $4 million it spent on employees, most of whom were emigres. In 1964, its budget got a hefty bump up to $10.5 million.

''A single stoker or sweeper": Critchlow, p. 15.

44 "Think about the massive volume": Ibid., p. 16.

Schub called it his "left hook": Interview with Gene and Gloria Sosin, 3 May 2006, White Plains, NY.

44 "I would demean the many devoted": Ibid.

"The boys in the back room": Ibid.

45 "Could not help seeing the anomaly": Ibid., pp. 28-29.

Awash with "displaced persons": BA B/106-8643, "Bericht des Bundesministeriurns fur Vertriebene, Vertriebene, Fluchtlinge, Kriegsgefangene, Heimatlose Auslander 1949-1952." Bonn 1953:11.Thanks to Stefan Meining for pointing out this document.

47 Vouched for Hayit and Kayum: Interview with Hayit; interview with Sultan, 27 January 2005; Crane, p. 200.

Other estimates are higher: Hayit's estimate from Baymirza Hayit, "Basmatchi": Nationaler Kampf Turkestans in den Jahren 1917 bis 1934. p. 403. Estimate for Kalmyks from von zur Muhlen, p. 227.

Committed suicide the night before: Hayit, "Basmatchi," p. 403.

48 Alshibaya took the hint: Interview with his wife, Nina Alshibaya, 16 August 2004, Munich; she tells the story as he related it to her. Note also spelling of the name. The German spelling is Alschibaya, Alschebaja, or Alschibaja. I am using the English spelling, as per U.S. intelligence documents.

The Tolstoy Foundation: Besides doing work for the army's CIC, the foundation seems to have had close links to Frank Wisner, from the CIA's Directorate of Plans and the most influential covert operations official from World War II through the late 1950s.

In 1953, Eisenhower's Psychological Strategy Board received requests to aid the Tolstoy Foundation, which apparently had run into financial difficulties. The board referred financial aid requests to Wisner. In a subsequent letter, a White House official said Wisner agreed the foundation deserved help and "should not be allowed to collapse." DDEL White House Central Files, Confidential File, box 84, Tolstoy Foundation file, 22 October 1953, "Memorandum for: Mr. C. D. Jackson." and 9 October 1953, "Memorandum to Mr. Jackson."

Alshibaya's wife worked for the foundation: Interview with Alshibaya.

The goal was to recruit: For evidence on how Western intelligence agencies began to recruit Germans during the war, see Burds; also, Christopher Simpson, Blowback: The First Full Account of Americas Recruitment of Nazis and Its Disastrous Effect on the Cold War, Our Domestic and Foreign Policy.

Sultan was looking for work: Interview with Sultan, 27 January 2005.

49 Scottish League for European Freedom: British intelligence support discussed in Dorril, Chapter 14.

50 75 to 80 percent: Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 4, folder 3, memo of 18 November 1958, "Subject: Ministerial Director, Dr. Taubert."

"For Americans of my generation": Critchlow, pp. 93-94.

51 "To provide the myth": Interview with Will Klump, 17 January 2006, New York City.

U.S. efforts went nowhere: A chronology of the Coordinating Center's activities is found in Isaac Patch's memo of 20 November 1953, including a reference to salaries. The salaries were terminated when the negotiations broke down. Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 3. Also, Patch memo, 24 November 1953, "Confidential Draft Memo -- Political Events, March to November, 1953." The events are also described in detail in Grose, pp. 129-35.

52 "Whether this analogy is justified": Georgetown, Kel1ey papers, box 4, folder 2, 5 February 1952, "Transmitting memorandum of conversation with Professor Gerhard von Mende, German Turcologist."

"An almost complete failure": DDEL, Jackson Committee, box I, folder I, 5 January 1953 memo, "Strictly Private."

"A tall, shrewd string bean": Critchlow, p. 18.

"The Muslims against the Slavs": This and other Patch quotations are from a telephone interview, 23 May 2005.

An old friend of US. intelligence: Ibid.

An agent code-named Ruppert: Details of the operation are taken from "Mission Rupert," undated, CIA MORI DocID 868611, and "Mission Ruppert: Survey of Mission and Summary of results obtained as of this Date," 31May 1945, MORI DodD 20055. Both in Michel Kedia Name File, NARA RG 263, A1-86, box 22.

The code name "Ruppert" is sometimes spel1ed with one p. I use the spelling Ruppert throughout because the second document, which uses this form, is longer and appears to be more authoritative. Also, Kedia's first name is variously given as Mikhail, Michael, or Michel.

Thanks to Jeffrey Burds and Richard Breitman for pointing out these documents.

53 The German army's Abwehr: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73 folder 2, document number MC-002250. 24 March 1961, "Subject: Mende. Gerhard von Dr., aka Metrevelli, George."

Made his way to Switzerland: Espeseth, Livet Gikk Videre, 227-37. Her account of von Mende's flight to Switzerland and his stay in the US. camp also fits the account in US. intelligence documents, which notes that the men were found in Hochst and taken to Karlsruhe.

But Red Cross files show: Red Cross archives, ACICR B, G23, "Visites particulieres (G-K), 04.01.1940-31.10.1950. M. Kedia."

"I am sure that in spite of everything": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 1, 17 July 1945, "Subject: Georgian Group."

54 Von Mende wrote for days: NARA RG 263. RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73 folder I, 31 October 1945, "Subject: Gerhard von Mende."

A moody prima donna: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 1, undated evaluation, probably summer 1945.

"A man of exceptional intelligence": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6. box 73, folder 1. undated 1945 evaluation reprinted on 15 November 1946. "Subject: Gerhart [sic] von Mende."

Never admitted to membership: For example. NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6. box 73, folder 1, undated (presumably 1945) resume lists al1 groups he joined but omits the SA.

55 "My husband has a group": Letter of 3 November 1945, von Mende papers. This is one of the few letters written in English. I corrected Espeseth's spelling mistakes but left the syntax.

The famous British historian: The letter has "Toynbee?" handwritten across the top and mentions that the recipient works for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, with which Toynbee was affiliated. According to the letter, the two had met at a conference in Berlin before the war.

56 Direct contact with the British: Believed to be the case by family members, his former employees, and U.S. intelligence. Based on interview with Erling von Mende; Narzikul, p. 258; NARA RG 263, box 2, folder 3, Counterintelligence Report No. 213 to AC of S, G-2, Headquarters, United States Forces European Theater, APO 757, March 1947, U.S. Army; also, U.S. military intelligence X-2, von Mende Personal File Folder D007362, which states that he "represents British intelligence."

"Major Morrison": Letter of 31 October 1945, von Mende papers.

Von Mende drove down to Munich: The operation involving von Mende and Alshibaya is described in NARA RG 263, Counterintelligence Report No. 213.

57 Alshibaya drove up to Hamburg: Ibid.

"Capriform": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 1, n February 1949, "Subject: von Mende visit."

The Americans weren't interested: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 1, 15 August 1949, document untitled.

58 "Persil certificates": Von Mende papers. For example, on 26 February 1946, he wrote one for Ernst Tormann, a former Ostministerium employee. The "Major Morrison" letter was also an effort to rehabilitate a colleague. On 31 December 1946 he also wrote a letter vouching for Walter Zeitler of the Ostministerium.

"Without you I would be": Letter of 24 February 1957, Hayit to von Mende, von Mende papers. (In German: "Ohne Sie ware ich in Deutschland ein Insel in eine Totenmeer.")

59 Reviewed in academic journals: The American Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), p. 742.

Carried a two-part series: Fred Forest, 3 September 1951 and 10 September 1951. Among the employees it named were "Veli Kayum 'Khan,' war-time Fuhrer of the Turkestanis, who was reared in Germany and was a Nazi favorite; Vladimir Glazkov, the 'inventor' of the Cossack 'nation' and an agent of various intelligence services; and Fatali-Bey, an Azerbaijani officer and intimate associate of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem."

Glazkov also worked for von Mende, while Fatali-Bey -- whose name was usually written without the hyphen, Fatalibey -- was with Amcomlib and would later be assassinated.

60 Von Mende immediately sent a letter: Letter of 29 October 1951, von Mende to Stetzko, von Mende papers.

Von Mende paid Kayum: AA ZA 105707, 1958 FDO Budget, 3 February 1958.

"Earlier services for Germany": AAPA ZA 105706 Band 48, 7 July 1961, "Betr.: Veli Kajum-Chan." (German: "in Anerkennung seiner fruheren Verdienste um Deutschland" and "der Ausbau der Beziehungen zu seinen Landsleuten schliesslich auch der deutschen Sache zugute komme, weil er aus alter Verbundenheit zu Deutschland es fur seine Pflicht ansehe, aufklarend uber deutsche Verhaltnisse zu wirken.")

A German, Walter Schenk: Thanks to Ray Brandon for pointing out Schenk's Lemberg ties. On Schenk's sacrifice of his university education for the Nazi cause, see Schenk, especially pp. 49ff.

Constantly changing his office's name: Von Mende tried out two other names first: institut fur Orientforschung (Sultan interview, 27 January 2005) and institut Turkestan (Zentral-Archiv MfS 6940/68, 14 November 1962, "An den Leiter der Abteilung X, Gen. Major Damm"). To complicate matters further, von Mende's office was also known as Buro fur Heimatvertriebene Auslander, a variation on the Buro fur Heimatlose Auslander. The difference is the word Heimatvertriebene, or "homeland expelled," instead of Heimatlose, or "homeland-less." NARA RG 263, box 1, NN3-263-02-008, 25 May 1955, "Memorandum of Conversation Professor G. von Mende Buro fur Heimatvertriebene Auslander," NARA RG 263, 760.00/5-2655.

61 Moved around the countryside: Letters of 5 April 1946, 29 May 1949, 20 March 1950, and 20 August 1950, von Mende papers.

Von Mende took a grand office: It was located at Cecilienallee 51-52. The architect was Heinrich Schell and the city development company Burohaus-Gesellschaft mbH. Thanks to Dr. Jorg A. E. Heimeshoff of the Institut fur Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege of the city of Dusseldorf for information on the building and to Dr. Robert Kaltenbrunner of the Bundesamt fur Bauwesen und Raumordnung for background on the style and history.

220,000 stateless foreigners: In an article written two years later, von Mende estimated that 220, 000 lived in West Germany. Given that the number was declining over time, at least 200, 000 must have been in Germany at this time. Bulletin des Presse und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung, No. 881/S. 736, 11 May 1955.

An extra five thousand marks: AAPA ZA 105705, notes based on 13 February 1957 meeting.

He eventually added money: Except for the Bavarian intelligence agency's contribution, the exact breakdown of the funding of von Mende's organization is not clear from the documents. The federal Office for Protection of the Constitution and the Foreign Office are often cited in correspondence and third-party evaluations as von Mende's main backers. NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 28 February 1955, untitled von Mende card file.

62 One such meeting took place: AAPA ZA 105774 Band 36, 3 May 1954, "Vermerk Betr.: Besprechung with 'American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism."

63 Patch organized a big dinner: The meeting with von Mende took place on 9 February 1955, as described in NARA RG 263, box 1, 762A.00/2-1555 AmConGen Munich, "Memorandum of Conversation."

Another meeting took place in May 1955, as per NARA RG 263, box 1, 760.00/5-2655, 26 May 1955, AmConGen Munich, "Conversation with a German Official Regarding Refugees."

5. The Key to the Third World

65 Pilgrimage to Mecca: The trip is recounted in Time magazine, 27 September 1954, and in the New York Times, 15 September 1954. Accessed through online archive; no page numbers. Also, interview with Rusi Nasar, 10 May 2006, Falls Church, VA.

66 The real action took place elsewhere: John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History, Chapter 6.

68 "The traditional Arab mind": DDEL NSC Registry Series, 1947-62, box 16, PSB Documents. Master Book of -- Vol. III (8), 6 February 1953, "Psychological Strategy Program for the Middle East," annex B, p. 4.

Natural barrier to communism: Ibid., p. 15.

69 The CIA received a report: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, April 1951, "Subject: [illegible] exile groups from Soviet-dominated Moslem areas."

"The Religious Factor": DDEL PSB Central Files Series, box 9, PSB 1953(3) file, 21 July 1953, "Subject: The Religious Factor."

The great Wesleyan Christian revival: DDEL OCB Secretariat Series, box 5, Moral Factor (4) file, 19 February 1953, "Conversation with Mr. Lockard. PSB."

The U.S. Air Force: DDEL OCB Secretariat Series, box 5, Moral Factor (4) file, 4 September 1953,"Your memo of August 31- Mecca Pilgrimage."

Sent to the National Security Council: DDEL, papers of Edward P. Lilly, box 55, 3 March 1954, "Subject: The Religious Factor and OCB."

71 Became known as the Bandung Conference: DDEL OCB Central File Series. box 85, file 9 (International Affairs - Conferences and Boards, January 1954-April 1955), 11 January 1955. "Terms of Reference for Working Group on Proposed Afro-Asian Conference."

"The Afro-Asian Conference": DDEL OCB Central File Series. box 85, file 9, 21 January 1955, "Subject: Exposing the Nature of the Afro-Asian Conference."

72 Distribute covert propaganda: DDEL OCB Central File Series, box 85, file 9, 7 February 1955, "Subject: Afro-Asian Conference in April."

"Some 'Machiavellian'" engineering: NARA RG 59, box 2668, folder 670.901/2-1055, 16 February 1955, memorandum from Mr. Dumont to Mr. Jones.

Working for the newspaper: NARA RG 59, box 69, folder 670.901/4-1155, 18 April 1955, from Jakarta to Secretary of State.

A survey of the newspaper's coverage of Bandung shows that Nasar did not write for the newspaper. Along with Said Shamil (spelled "Schamyl" in the article), Nasar was, however, interviewed by the newspaper, and accused the Soviets of colonialism. Homer Bigart, "Coney Islander Assails Red Crimes at Bandung," New York Herald Tribune.

The Soviet newspaper Trud: NARA RG 59, box 2669, folder 670.901/4-1955, 20 April 1955, from Moscow to Secretary of State.

73 The National Turkestani Unity Committee: NARA RG 59, box 2669, folder 670.901/4-155, "To the Government Representatives of the Participating States of the Asia-Africa Conference."

Nasar's role in the Muslim propaganda: Interview with Nasar. On his position as a community leader, see http://www.sunshineuzbekistan.org/wordpress/ archives/241.

In interviews, James Critchlow (3 February 2006, Cambridge, MA), Gaither "Jack" Stewart (1 October 2005, Rome), and Edward A. Allworth (7 January 2006, New York City) said that Nasar was widely known in the 1950Sto be working for the CIA. In addition, Crane (Chapters 2, 3, and 4) describes a CIA agent whose anonymity was protected by the pseudonym "Safi Oraz." In correspondence, Crane said he believes Oraz was Nasar.

74 Nasar might have looked down: The private nature of Amcomlib is mentioned in the Time magazine article.

A "damn good man": Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 5, 1 December 1959, "Memorandum for the Record."

75 The April 29 cabinet meeting: DDEL, Papers of the President, Cabinet Series, box 5, file "Cabinet Meeting of April 29, 1955." 2 May 1955, "The Cabinet, Record of Action, " p. 3.

Analyses of the conference: At this crucial phase, Hayit was recruited by French intelligence. Hayit was contacted by a former lieutenant in the 782nd Turkestani Volunteers Battalion, who was now living in the French sector near Baden- Baden. He suggested that Hayit travel to Bandung for France, which would pick up all the costs. Hayit turned him down and dutifully reported the offer to von Mende. AAPA ZA 105783 Band 61, 30 March 1955, "Aktenvermerk."

Nasar had claimed to represent: AAPA ZA 105783 Band 61, letter of 1 June 1955, Hayit to "Sehr geehrter Herr Professor."

"Prof. von Mende said that": NARA RG 263, box 1, folder 760.00/5-2655, NN3- 263-02-008, 25 May 1955, "Memorandum of Conversation Professor G. von Mende Buro fur Heimatvertriebene Auslander."

6. Learning Their Lesson

76 "Homo barrackensis": Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1952. Cited in Friedrich Prinz and Marita Krauss, eds., Trummerleben. Texte, Dokumente, Bilder aus den Munchener Nachkriegsjahren, p. 160.

The southern Munich suburb: BayHstA LafluVerw 2199, 17 May 1960, Balagija to Stein.

77 When Gacaoglu formed the group: BayHStA MK 49638, 20 June 1953, "An das Bayer: Staatsministerium fur Unterricht und Kultus."

Gacaoglu was handing out: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 23 May 1959, Kurbah Bayba to Oberlander.

Goods from the Tolstoy Foundation: Ibid.

Bairam, a major event: Suddeutsche Zeitung, 30 July 1955.

A Chechen who taught at the CIA school: This was Abdurakhman Artorkhanovo Interview with Sultan, 9 March 2005.

78 Melbardis was impressed: Interview with Alex Melbardis, 6 September 2005, Pfaffing, Germany.

Gacaoglu's payments were also confirmed in my interview with Will Klump, deputy head of emigre relations for Amcomlib during the latter half of the 1950s; he became head in 1962.

79 B. Eric Kuniholm: For Kuniholm's personal history, see Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 5, "Confidential: Report of Mr. B. E. Kuniholm on His Trip to the Middle East." Also, telephone interview with his son Bruce Kuniholm, 18 April 2006.

Kuniholm as a "splittist": AAPA ZA 105774 Band 36, 20 October 1954, "Betr. Veranderungen und andere Vorgange im American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism (AMCOMLIB)."

79 Dreher was Kuniholm's opposite: Biographical details taken from CIA and Amcomlib applications and Dreher papers.

80 Dreher was detained: This is according to Dreher's own account in the newsletter of the Central Intelligence Retiree Association (CIRA), 9-15, date uncertain, Dreher papers.

The incident was front-page news: "Espionage Denied," New York Times, 16 August 1948, and subsequent coverage.

81 "I had more direct, intimate contact": Taken from "Manuscript on Russia," an unpublished and unfinished book Dreher wrote after he left the USSR in 1948. Dreher papers.

Eight years in the gulag: An account of Dreher's reunion with the medical student was published in People magazine, 31 October 1994.

On his CIA application: Dreher papers.

82 She bore him a daughter: According to interviews with Chuck and Helen Oerkvitz (7 February 2006, Gwynedd, PA), Klump, Karin West (27 March 2006, Munich), and Melbardis.

The salary was also generous: Hoover, Radio Liberty Corporate Minutes Vol. I, 1951-54, "Minutes of the Political and Management Committees Joint Meeting, March 26, 1953."

83 A "WASPish bank": Interview with Sosin.

Especially Kuniholm and Dreher: Ibid. Both men attended all board meetings. Dreher stopped attending when he left for Munich.

Dreher was firmly in the latter: Interview with David E. Murphy, 7 May 2006, Punta Gorda, FL. Murphy said Dreher worked for the head of OPC's Munich operations, Walpole Davis.

84 "Pining to get back": Peter Sichel, cited in Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA, p. 24. Thomas Schmitt, Moscheen in Deutschland: Konflikte um ihre Errichtung und Nutzung, p. 24.

"Bunch of old washerwomen": Cited in John Ranelagh, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA, p. 135.

85 "It was prankster stuff": The veteran was Tom Braden, cited in Ranelagh, p. 221.

The night train to Ankara: For Kuniholm's trip to Turkey, Germany, riots, and meetings with Muslim leaders, see "Confidential Report."

87 One such key leader: Interview with Melbardis; Kuniholm report. Participation in Nazi-era emigre policies, von zur Muhlen, p. 71. Work with pan-Islamic causes, Schulze, p. 232. Schulze transliterates his name as Samil. Other documents have Schamyl.

Shamil provided information: NARA RG 263, Al-86, box 22, "Kedia, Michael," 17 February 1954, "Subject: Ali Kahn Kantemir."

88 Contacts with U.S. intelligence: Ibid.

Another key person whom Kuniholm met was Edige Kirimal, an old Tatar leader who had worked closely with Garip Sultan during the war. A couple of weeks before Germany's capitulation, von Mende had signed an Ostministerium paper giving Kirmal a fanciful title: president of the Crimean-Tatar National Central Committee, a position that got him a travel permit out of Berlin and down to safety in Munich. "His trip lies in the most pressing interest of the Reich and is important for the defense of the Reich," von Mende said. Koblenz, T-454, 15/1207, 22 April 1945.

After the war, Kirimal relaunched his life as a quasi academic. He wrote a book on the Tatars' national struggle, and von Mende added an introduction. Judging from the location of the tiny publishing house, located near von Mende's office at the time in the Westphalian countryside, von Mende also helped him get it published.

Kuniholm was unimpressed. He described Kirimal as "on the make" and dismissed his ideas for starting a newspaper and moving the Munich emigres to Istanbul. Kirimal also pitched the notion that Amcomlib could do more to support his old friend Gacaoglu's religious society. Kuniholm: "Confidential Report," p. 25.

Gacaoglu was next on Kuniholm's list: Kuniholm, "Confidential Report," p. 27.

Munich's Bayerischer Hofhotel: Based on photos and interview with Melbardis; also von Mende's description in AAPA ZA 105762, letter of 10 January 1957, von Mende to Wolfrum.

89 Important Munich newspapers: "Die Trinkgelder der roten Pilger in Mekka," Munchener Merkur, 13 August 1956, p. 3; "Sowjetunion und Islam," Suddeutsche Zeitung, 13 August 1956, p. 5. The Merkur's article was the long feature.

The Turkish article was published on 2 August 1956 in Milliyet. Translation in AAPA ZA 105783, "Sowjetpilger fahren nach Mekka und Machen Propaganda fur die Sowjets."

Sultan and Zunnun had been interviewed: "Meeting with the Turkestanian Pilgrims," four pages, by Veli Zunnun, and "Report on the Pilgrimage to Mecca," twenty pages, by Garip Sultan, Sultan papers.

Von Mende's office also received a detailed report on the pilgrimage: AAPA ZA 105792, 4 November 1955. The four-page report's presumed author, Hayit, emphasized the Soviet pilgrims' efforts to discredit the main Turkestani emigre group, the National Turkestani Unity Committee (known by its German acronym, NTEK). Again, von Mende's disadvantage is highlighted in the late arrival of the report, compared to when reports reached Sultan and Zunnun.

Happy with Sultan's performance: Letter of 3 October 1956, Robert F. Kelley to Garip Sultan, Sultan papers.

90 "The notion of a simple, old Arab": Sultan report, p. 15.

Didn't look like a religious leader: Ibid., p. 14.

Amcomlib's "Special Projects" department: Interviews with Sultan.

7. ''A Politically Smart Act": The Mosque Is Conceived

91 A memo from Theodor Oberlander: BayHStA LafluVerw 1894, 6 August 1956, "Grundsatze fur die Betreuung nichtdeutscher Fluchtlinge." Thanks to Stefan Meining for pointing out this document.

Home to thousands of emigres: See list of refugee flows on the website of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees: http://www.unhcr.org/static/publ/sowr2000/ toceng.htm.

92 Oberlander was the chief: For a more-or-less sympathetic account of Oberlander's life, see Philipp-Christian Wachs, Der Fall Theodor Oberlander (1905-1998): Ein Lehrstuck Deutscher Geschichte.

93 One of the first Wehrmacht units: Its name was Sonderverband Bergmann.

94 Discussed how to evacuate: Memo, United States Information Agency Confidential Issue Date: 17 August 1954; date declassified: 17 October 1996; reproduced in Declassified Documents Reference System. Gale Group, 2006, document number CK3100109821.

"They are not Nazis in the sense": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/ A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 17 January 1956, "S): Target: Gerhard von Mende, Amt fur Heimatlose Auslander," attachment A, "Important Persons with Whom von Mende Maintains Operational Relations."

"Their chief agent is": Ibid.

The State Department was also concerned about von Mende. See Declassified Documents Reference System, Document Number CK3100109821, United States Information Agency, 17 August 1954, "Germany and the FEC," p. 11.

Aid Society of Former Volunteer Units: "Hilfswerk der ehemaligen Freiwilligenverbande e.V.." Amtsgericht Munchen VR Nr. 5469. The group was discussed by the CIA in NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 7 January 1955, "Ref: Congen Dispatch No. 144, December 7, 1954."

95 Von Mende did have close ties: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/ A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 23 September 1955, "Subject: Talk with Professor von Mende."

"Quite a small connection file": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 23 November 1955, "SJ: Gerhard von Mende and His Buddies."

"Try to recruit him": NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 17 January 1956, "SJ: Target: Gerhard von Mende, Amt fur Heimatlose Auslander."

Kayum had outed Rusi Nasar: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, attachment A, "Important Persons with Whom von Mende Maintains Operational Relations."

96 Seeking a map of his office: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 14 March 1956, "Subject: Gerhard v. Mende."

Again proposing von Mende: NARA RG 263, RC 2002/A/11/6, box 73, folder 2, 11 January 1957, "Investigative Aid -- Possible RIS Exploitation of ex-Agents of the German Intelligence Services."

Nurredin Namangani landed: Crane's narrator, Narzikul, calls him "Nuridin [Namangani] Qari," Crane, p. 83.

In most postwar German documents he is referred to as Nurredin Namangani, which is the name I use throughout. In some documents he is given the middle name Nakibhodscha. This is at least partially an honorific. Hodscha, or hodja, is Turkish for "an educated person" and Nakib could be a given name or refer to a Sunni sect in Turkey, the Nakshbendi. The name is used, for example, in BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 8 May 1957, Nentwig to Wolfrum, "Berufung einese religosen Oberhauptes fur die mohammedanischen Fluchtlinge."

The variation in names can probably be explained by the fact that many Uzbeks were flexible with surnames and sometimes used a form of their hometown in place of it -- in this case, for the city Namangan in Uzbekistan. It may also be that Namangani wanted to hide his identity after the war and dropped Qari in favor of Namangani.

Von Mende had invited Namangani: Letter of 1 August 1956, Kayum to von Mende, von Mende papers.

One of von Mende's men: Details of Namangani's career from BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 5 November 1958, Namangani to Burmeister.

The only unclear details about Namangani's life concern his time in Turkey. In his CV he wrote that he went to Turkey from 1947 to 1950 to study. In BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 17 April 1957, Wolfrum to Nentwig, Wolfrum writes that Namangani went to Adana in Turkey in 1954, returning only at von Mende's beckoning in 1956. The dates can be reconciled -- accounting for two stays in Turkey -- but this is speculation.

Namangani retired to Adana and died in 2002, drawing a West German, then a German pension, per interview with Hayit.

His long service to Germany: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 17 April 1957, Wolfrum to Nentwig.

97 "The majority of the Mohammedans": BayHStA LafluVerw 2027, 14 July 1955, "Beihilfe fur die Religiose Gemeinschaft 'Islam.'"

"Create a favorable echo": AAPA ZA 105762, 10 January 1956, von Mende to Luder, "Unterstutzung der Mohammedanischen Religiosen Gesellschaft 'Islam:"

Von Mende and Namagani: Interview with Erling von Mende. Also, the letter from Wolfrum to Nentwig states that they knew each other during the war.

98 Strict and humorless: Hayit, who was married to a Christian, recalled that Namangani criticized him for having a Christmas tree. Anecdote from Narzikul; also Crane, p. 83.

"Denunciations" in Munich: Letter of 1 August 1956, Veli Kayum to von Mende. Oberlander himself was brought: See Wachs.

The Stasi was taking aim: BStU, MfS HA 11/5B, Reg. Nr. 2293/60.

99 Baymirza Hayit: AAPA ZA 195783. The broadcast is translated as "Inhalt der Sendung Radio Taschkent vom 20.7.1956, 19 Uhr."

How to knock out Gacaoglu: AAPA ZA 105762, letter of 28 December 1956, Gacaoglu to "Sehr geehrter Herr Bundesminister."

"Because no German office": AAPA ZA 105762, letter of 10 January 1957, von Mende to Wolfrum, opposing Gacaoglu and Sultan.

100 "The unwanted American influence": BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 17 April 1957, "Einfuhrung des Hauptimams Namangani als Oberhaupt der mohammedanischen Gemeinde heimatloser Auslander in der Bundesrepublik."

"I find it unbearable": BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 17April 1957, Wolfrum to Nentwig, no subject.

"Mr. Kelley from the local office": BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 9 November 1957, "Seelsorgerische Betreuung der moh, Fluchtlinge."

In Munich's Lowenbraukeller: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 9 March 1958, "Einladung" and "Protokoll."

101 Created the Ecclesiastical Administration: Amtsgericht Munchen Registerakten, VR 5991, 7 May 1958, "Protokoll."

Namangani got 650 marks: Ibid. Namangani received 650 marks per month plus 150 marks for travel costs. His deputy, Ibrahim Salih Sabanovic, received 250 marks. Namangani also oversaw a small social fund of 250 marks per month to help Muslims with a variety of needs.

The conversion is based on tables found at http://www.history.ucsb.edu/ faculty/marcuse/index.html. Thanks to Professor Harold Marcuse at University of California at Santa Barbara.

101 Gacaoglu's response to the new: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 3 April 1958, Gacaoglu to Oberlander.

A central place of worship: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 27 November 1957, "Betreuung der mohammedanischen Fluchtlinge."

102 Raschid wrote a letter: BayHStA MK 49638, 18 February 1959.

103 Namangani called a meeting: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 22 December 1958, "Protokoll Nr. 5."

8. Dr. Ramadan Arrives

104 The visitor was Said Ramadan: Interview with Gerhard Kegel, 25 October 2004. Cologne. The meeting happened on or shortly after 6 March 1956, when Kegel wrote a letter to an assistant or university official, following up on his meeting. Letter in Kegel papers.

Shy of his thirtieth birthday: Ramadan was born on 13 April 1926. making him twenty-nine at the time of the meeting.

105 A time of profound crisis: History of the Brotherhood drawn from Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers; Brynjar Lia, The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement, 1928-1942; and Gilles Kepel, The Prophet and Pharaoh; Muslim Extremism in Egypt.

108 Banna's works contained: Lia. p. 28.

"Wasn't like other sheikhs": Interview with Farid Abdel Khalek, 13 September 2004, Cairo.

109 New members were recruited: Muslim Brotherhood organizing methods drawn from Mitchell, pp. 14-32.

The first split in the movement: Lia, pp. 66-67.

Money from Nazi agents: NAWO 208/502, 23 October 1939. "Note on Wilhelm Stellborgen," p. 2. First cited in Lia.

Having a military wing: Banna's thoughts on politics and religion drawn from Lia, pp. 199, 202.

110 Attacked shops owned by Jews: Ibid., p. 244.

"You and your idols": Quotation from The Koran, translated by N. J. Dawood, 21:96, p. 233.

Christians "are not like the Jews": Translation from Andrew Bostom, ed., The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism: From Sacred Texts to Solemn History, p. 37.

Karen Armstrong, in Islam: A Short History (p. 21), takes the opposite view, stating flatly that anti-Semitism was unknown among Muslims until the Nazi period, but she provides no evidence to back up this claim.

111 Why Islam is less accepting: See Matthias Kuntzel, Djihad und Judenhaß: Ober den neuen antijudischen Krieg.

Nazi propaganda added fuel: See Jeffrey Herf, Nazi Propaganda for the Middle East.

A haven for ex-Nazis: Kuntzel, pp. 26, 50.

Could not accept all Nazi ideas: See Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Clippers. Halbmond und Hakenkreuz: Das "Dritte Reich," die Araber, und Palastina, p. 43, and Kuntzel, p. 39.

112 Some biographers have glossed over: For example, Philip Mattar (The Mufti of Jerusalem) seems to purposely leave out most details of the Mufti's contacts with the Nazis. The best treatment by far of the Mufti's links with the National Socialists is Klaus Gensicke, Der Mufti von Jerusalem, Amin el-Husseini, und die Nationalsozialisten, but this book is written in German and untranslated. His main conclusions are found in Mallmann and Cuppers. See also Kuntzel, especially his epilogue.

His career in the 1930s and '40s: Biographical details drawn from Mattar and Zvi Elpeleg, Grand Mufti: Haj Amin al-Hussaini. On Hussaini's anti-Semitism, see Gensicke, pp. 149-59. A number of the Mufti's speeches, such as his radio address of 8 January 1943, are collected in Hopp, Mufti Papiere, and demonstrate this.

He contacted the Nazis: German Foreign Office records, cited in Gensicke, p. 45.

113 The propagandist Johann von Leers: AAPA ZA 105783, 18 February 1960, "Verbindungen Amin Lahar aus Kairo nach Bundesrepublik."

"The Mufti told him": Interview with Khalek.

Banna turned to one: Taken from Ramadan's obituary on the website of the Islamic Center of Geneva, http://www.cige.org/historique.htm. and as recounted to Dawud Salahuddin. Telephone interview with Salahuddin, 28 February 2006.

114 "Physically he was enormously strong": Interview with Salahuddin.

Concerning his work in Palestine: On his playing a crucial role in the defense of Palestine, see the Islamic Center of Geneva's account of his life on its website. On establishing the Brotherhood's branch in Jordan, carrying a passport, and German and Swiss police records, see "History of the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood, Part One," http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section= 3&id=3204.

115 Ramadan went to Pakistan: Biographical sketch in NARA RG 59, Decimal Files, 1950-1954, 511.80/7-2753, United States Embassy, Egypt Dispatch from Jefferson Caffery to the Department of State, "Colloquium on Islamic Culture and Saeed Ramadhan," 27 July 1953.

"If the Brotherhood had ministries": Interview with Gamal el-Banna, 13 September 2004, Cairo.

Ramadan and the Grand Mufti: Reinhard Schulze, Islamischer lnternationalismus im 20. Jahrhundert, pp. 110, 111, 210.

The "World Muslim Congress" is how Ramadan, in his official correspondence (see Kegel papers; for example, Ramadan CV), renders mu'tamar al-alam al-islami, the Karachi conference held in 1951 of which he was elected secretary, and al-mu'tamar al-islami al-amm li-l-Quds, the Jerusalem-based conference of which he was elected secretary general in 1956. To distinguish one from the other, I have added "Jerusalem" when referring to the latter. Neither of these should be confused with the current Saudi-controlled Muslim World League, or rabitat al-alam al-islami, which Ramadan helped found in Mecca on 18 May 1962. See Schulze. Internationalismus.

116 "Source states that the Mufti": NARA RG 263. ZZ-18. box 96. Amin El-Hussaini. Vol. 1, 11 March 1946. "Views of the Jerusalem Mufti."

"Hoped-for result": DDEL Central Files, Official File. box 737, file 144-B-4, "Islamic & Moslem Religion," 24 August 1953, "Memo to: C. D. Jackson, from: Abbott Washburn."

117 "These individuals can exert": DDEL Central Files, Official File, box 737, file 144-B-4, "Islamic & Moslem Religion," 8 September 1953."Subject: Islamic leaders."

The president's appointment book: DDEL, President's Appointments, 23 September 1953, Vol. July-December 1953, Eisenhower, Dwight D.: Records as President, Daily Appointments, 1953-1961. Thanks to David Haight at the Eisenhower Presidential Library for pointing out this document.

"On the surface, the conference": NARA RG 59, Decimal Files, 1950-1954, 511.80/4-3053.30 April 1953, "Colloquium on Islamic Culture" and attached briefing paper. Thanks to the National Security Archives for drawing attention to this document.

Private sponsors stepped in: NARA RG 59, Decimal Files, 1950-1954, 511.8012- 253, Princeton University, letter of 2 February 1953, Bayard Dodge to Richard H. Sanger [Colloquium on Islamic Culture].

Paying for two Princeton professors: NARA RG 59. Decimal Files, 1950-1954. 511.80/5-853. "Colloquium on Islamic Culture." letter of 8 May 1953, Helen M. Anderson to Richard H. Sanger.

118 Sanitized version of his career: NARA RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Decimal Files, 511.80/7-2753, United States Embassy, Egypt Dispatch from Jefferson Caffery to the Department of State. "Colloquium on Islamic Culture and Saeed Ramadhan," 27 July 1953.

The resulting photo op: Thanks to Robert Dreyfuss, who generously provided a copy of the official Princeton program, including photos.

"Ramadan was invited": CIA RDP83-00423R001300710001, "Comments on the Islamic Colloquium."

119 U.S. officials in Rabat: NARA RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Decimal Files, 880.413/2-856, 8 February 1956, "Press Conference in Rabat of Said Ramadan of Islamic Congress in Jerusalem" and accompanying memo from Gerald Little.

A tough anticommunist battle: Associated Press report, printed in The Lincoln Star, 28 September 1956, p. 3. The report calls the group the Jerusalem Moslem Conference.

Nasser cracked down: Mitchell, pp. 141, 142, 153.

Five months after Kegel: Letter of 14 August 1956, Kegel papers.

The forty-four-year-old scholar: Kegel was born 26 June 1912, according to the Deutsche Dienststelle, and died in February 2006. An account of his remarkable legal career can be found in German at www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/instipr/ leitung/Nachruf_Krueger.doc.

120 He wrote a telegram: 13 November 1956, Kegel papers.

In June 1958, Ramadan wrote: 21 June 1958, Kegel papers.

He was off to the Hajj: 28 August 1958, Kegel papers.

During this Hajj the exiled: Interview with Fouad Allam, 15 September 2004, Cairo. Allam was the former head of Egyptian domestic security.

Swiss officials seemed unaware: BAR Ramadan, 3 March 1966, interrogation of Ramadan, "Abhorungsprotokoll."

121 "Intelligent if also fanatical": Interview with Kegel.

122 Braving a snowstorm: Interview with Faisal I. Yazdani, 13 December 2005, Munich.

Printed in German and Turkish: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, "Protokoll Nr. 5Am 22.12.58 hate eine Sitzung des 'Dini Idare'" and attached invitation flyers. Also, interviews with Yazdani, 28 January and 13 December 2005, Munich.

123 Syrian student, Ghaleb Himmat: Telephone interview with Himmat, 1 June 2005. Himmat did not say if he had invited Ramadan.

"Himmat invited him to take over": Interview with Mogaddedi.

124 "The students were all well educated": Interview with Muhammad Abdul Karim Grimm, 21 October 2004, Hamburg.

Von Mende's tiny card file: AAPA ZA 105731, 23 March 1959, "Aktenvermerk, Betr.: Said Muhammed Ramadan, Genf."

9. Marriage of Convenience

125 "Received my Kodachromes": Letter of 6 August 1957, "Dear Folks," Dreher papers. Thanks to Helen and Chuck Oerkvitz, Dreher's sister and brother-in-law, for access to his personal papers.

"Not a one-woman man": Interview with West.

126 "Deep down inside I realize": Letter of 19 May 1953, Dreher to Helen and Chuck Oerkvitz, Dreher papers.

On his CIA application: Ibid. Dreher attended all board meetings until he left for Munich.

He spoke broken German: See Chapter 12 for description of his farewell speech, which he delivered in poor German.

Show off to bewildered emigres: Interview with Klump.

127 Church leader Edward Elson: Letter of 31 July 1958, "White House Letter from Dwight D. Eisenhower to Edward 1. R. Elson," document 133 in the online archive "Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East." published by the National Security Archive of George Washington University, Washington, DC: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/ NSAEBB78/docs.htm.

"The 'holy war' aspect": 7 September 1957, Goodpaster "Memorandum of Conference with the President," retrieved from Declassified Documents Reference Service.

Ad Hoc Working Group on Islam: DDEL OCB Central Files Series, box 2, file January-May 1957, 5 February 1957, "Informal Memorandum of Meeting: Ad Hoc Working Group on Islam."

128 "Strengthen the reformist groups": This was in specific reference to NSC 5428, "U.S. Objectives and Policies with Respect to the Near East."

In May, the coordination board: DDEL OCB Secretariat Series, box 4, file "Islamic Organizations," 3 May 1957, "Inventory of U.S. Government and Private Organization Activity Regarding Islamic Organizations as an Aspect of Overseas Operations."

129 "We all thought the Soviet": Interview with Klump.

"Offensive" and "defensive": Letter of 7 November 1961, Dreher to Howland H. Sargeant, Amcomlib president, Dreher papers. In the letter, Dreher reviews tactics used in Munich.

130 Dreher's boss, Walpole Davis: Interview with Murphy.

Most emigres were eager: See, for example, Burds.

Automatic payments: Interview with Klump.

Might have been unsavory: See, for example, Win magazine. An antiwar publication prominent during the Vietnam War, it had an amazingly accurate description of Operation Ohio, a U.S. intelligence program to back emigre groups that had killed opponents in displaced persons camps after the war. The magazine lists Dreher and other Amcomlib employees as having been aware that they were funding people involved in the postwar killings. The allegations are impossible to prove, but based on subsequently released information (see, for example, Loftus, The Belarus Secret), they are highly plausible.

Washington's fears seem overblown: NARA RG 59, Decimal File 670.901/1-2158, 21 January 1958. "AmEmbassy. Cairo to Department of State. Subject: Talks with Members of Dipomatic Corps Regarding Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Conference."

U.S. diplomats spent: See, for example, cable traffic, such as NARA RG 59. Decimal File 670.901/10-457, 4 October 1957, State Department circular on how to prepare for the conference.

Such as Said Shamil: NARA RG 59. Decimal File 670.901/5-2059, 23 May 1959. "Subject: Document on Soviet Colonialism Addressed to AA Solidarity Council."

Dreher was trying to make use: On the conference, see NARA RG 59, Decimal File 670.901/1-2558, 25 January 1958, "Soviet and Egyptian Statements at Asian- African Solidarity Conference."

On Nasar's role, see Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 5, 1 December 1959, "Political Affairs Discussion with Kelley."

131 "Rusi Nasar tried": Interview with Allworth.

A Jordanian passport: A BND official wrote to von Mende making this claim. Letter of 19 May 1961, Maurer to von Mende, "Sehr verehrter Herr Professor!," von Mende papers.

Swiss intelligence claimed: BAR Ramadan, 29 June 1967, "Note pour Monsieur Gelzer."

Ahmet Magoma: Georgetown, Kelley papers, box 5, folder 5, "Confidential Report of Mr. B. E. Kuniholm on His Trip to the Middle East," pp. 27-28.

Von Mende was outraged: AAPA ZA 105731, 3 February 1959, "Aktennotiz Betr. Besuch von Shamil and Magoma."

No influence in the Muslim world: In fact, Ramadan was at this time a key Islamist figure, receiving visits from, for example. King Hussein of Jordan. BAR Ramadan, Index entry C.11.88, 24 November 1958, "Erw. im Bewachungsbericht Konig HUSSEIN's von Jordanien, Dieser hat am 20.11.59 nachtmittags R. besucht."

132 West Germany's Foreign Office: AAPA ZA B12 Band 411, 2 February 1959, "Betr. Besuch von Vertretern des Nordkaukasischen Komitees in Deutschland."

One of von Mende's key men: AAPA ZA 105731, 29 June 1959, "Auszug aus einem Schreiben von Dr. Hayit vom 24.06.59."

His own covert operation: AAPA ZA 105707, 16 April 1959, "Ausnutzung der turkestanischen Exilgruppen fur politsiche Aufklarungsarbeit."

133 Namangani reported to his boss: AAPA ZA 105731, 22 September 1959, "Reisebericht von Haupt-Imam Namangani." The men had arrived back in Germany in July and Namangani was paid one thousand marks on August 26.

A resounding success: Details in Schulze, Internationalismus, pp. 149-51.

134 The institute's Arabic Review: Hoover, Radio Liberty Collection, box 214, letter of 16 March 1960, Ramadan to Kantemir.

Decided to move his family: Letter of 10 April 1959, Ramadan to Kegel, Kegel papers.

The European congress: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 30 April 1959, "Betreff: Errich tung einer Moschee in Munchen durch."

Gacaoglu wrote a letter: The text, including the quotation "The mosque to be built, "from BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 27 April 1959, Gacaoglu to Stain.

135 Ramadan was the chairman: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten, VR 6256, 29 March 1960, "Betreff: Moscheebau-Kommission e.V."

Bring back money: BayHStA LaFluVerw 1900, 13June 1960, "Betreff: Bau einer Moschee in Munchen."

Their old intelligence contact: BayHStA LaFluVerw 1900, 8 March 1960, "Betreff: Religiose Betreuung der mohammedanischen Fluchtlinge; hier: Bau einer Moschee in Munchen."

"Germany is a gate": AAPA ZA 105783, 8 March 1960, untitled rough draft of report from Hayit to von Mende.

136 "One comes to the conviction": AAPA ZA 105783, 14 April 1960, "Bemerkungen zu den Tatigkeit des Geistlichesamt."

The mufti of Turkestan: AAPA ZA 105707, 2 November 1960, "Betr. Abteilung fur die Propaganda des Islams in der SU beim ZK der KP Iraqs."

Advised him to see Ramadan: Letter of 27 May 1961, von Mende to Ungermann, "Betr.: Kartothek Dr. Said RAMADAN," von Mende papers.

Von Mende reluctantly agreed: Ibid.

137 Break into Ramadan's office: Ibid., as well as 8 May 1961, Aktennotiz "Betr.: Said RAMADAN." and letter of 19 May 1961, Maurer to von Mende, "Sehr verehrter Herr Professor!." von Mende papers.

138 The burglary was called off: This is an assumption based on von Mende's seeming agreement that the files wouldn't be valuable and on a lack of further correspondence. It's not impossible, however, that the burglary went ahead, but that details were arranged over the phone; alternatively the written record may have been destroyed or lost.

138 "It is astounding": AAPA ZA 105784, letter of 5 June 1961, to von Mende, "Sehr geehrter Professor!," von Mende papers.

10. The Novelist's Tale

139 A charity called Jami'at al Islam: Jami'at al Islam should not be confused with the famous Pakistani political group of a similar name, Jamaat-e-Islamiya.

Moving their operations: BayHStA LanfluVerw 2199, 9 January 1960, "Betreff: Aufnahme der Tatigkeit einer JAl-Zweigstelle in Deutschland."

"I hardly think it's possible": BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 20 February 1960, "Betr. Bau einer Moschee in Munchen."

140 "Jami'at al Islam was founded": Ibid., attached document, "Jami'at al Islam, Geschichte -- Richtlinien -- Programm," Wien, 1959.

141 The U.S. Escapee Program: See, for example, Susan L. Carruthers, "Between Camps: Eastern Bloc 'Escapees' and Cold War Borderlands," American Quarterly, p. 934.

Afoul of Catholic agencies: Interview with Touhami Louahala, 30 July 2006, Montelimar, France.

Office of Refugee and Migration Affairs: Jami'at al Islam newsletter, No. 2, 1960, p. 2.

Photographed in front of a shack: About Kamal's visit to the camp, BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, letter of 17 May 1960, Balagija to Stain, with accompanying photos.

American Council of Voluntary Agencies: That the council did not vet Kamal's group is explicitly confirmed in a letter from the council to Bavarian officials. BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, letter of 5 January 1962, "Strictly Confidential: Ms. Ella V. Laursen."

Field Marshal Ayub Khan: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, article in Munchener Merkur, 24 January 1961, page number unclear.

A large conference in Munich: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, Munchener Merkur, 6 June 1961.

142 His Ecclesiastical Administration: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, 27 February 1960 memo to members, "Lieber Bruder in Islam."

"The Bavarian capital has recently": BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, "Synagoge neben Moschee," Munchener Merkur, 26 March 1961.

Citing Jami'at's move: Munchener Merkur, 24 June 1960, "Spenden aus Mekka fur Munchen," p. 14.

Kamal's public life: Kamal's biography can be found on the back cover of all his reprinted works, available through the publishing-on-demand company toExcel. The copyright was renewed in 2000 and the packaging prepared by his son, Turan, a classical guitarist who wanted to keep up his father's legacy, according to Kamal's daughter, Tura. Interview with Tura Kamal-Haller, 16 June 2006. Munich.

143 Kamal's Federal Bureau of Investigation file: FBI Ahmad Kamal FOIA, 8 May 1956, "Ahmad Kamal, also known as Cimarron Hathaway, Ahmad Kamal Hathaway, Ahmed Kamal," p. 1.

He listed his father as Qara Yusuf: Ibid., p. 6.

He had left Kamal's mother: Ibid., p. 1.

144 Arrested by Chinese authorities: West German intelligence believed this was true. AAPA ZA 105792, 25 July 1955, "Betr.: Lage in Indonesien."

145 "I'm crying for what wasn't": Interview with Kamal-Haller.

Write-up in the New York Times: "A Picaresque Tale of Adventure," 31 March 1940. The Times also reviewed Full Fathom Five and One-Dog Man.

146 Kamal told the Los Angeles Times: "Prison 'Koran' Tricked Japs," 11November 1945, p. 7.

147 The Sacred Journey: Author's note, pp. xiii-xv, toExcel edition.

Kamal tried to describe: According to a small notice in Jami'at al Islam, No. 2, 1960. In the author's possession.

The Saturday Evening Post: 26 September 1953, p. 19.

To work for the U.S. government: FBI Kamal FOIA, 4 May 1956, "Re: New York Air-Tel to Los Angeles, 4/30/56," p. 2.

A debt of $1, 877.40: Ibid.

The view of West German intelligence: AAPA ZA 105792, 25 July 1955, "Betr.: Lage in Indonesien."

148 His son took music lessons: Kamal's son is in fact an accomplished guitarist. See http://www.classicalguitar.nl/ShowPost.aspx?PostID=9649. for example. Recordings of his music circulate among aficionados.

149 Touhami Louahala grew up: Interview with Louahala. The suicide of Dubois was widely reported in Swiss and foreign newspapers.

In Jami'at publications, Louahala's name is spelled Tuhami Ibn Ahmad El Wahla. See Jami'at al Islam, No. 2, 1960, p. 5.

150 The much more famous Pakistani group: Serge Bromberger, Les rebelles algeriens, p. 222.

"What is fact and what is fiction": Nevill Barbour, review of Les rebelles algeriens, International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), p. 113.

151 "That was Mr. James Price": For Price's ties to Amcomlib, see Hoover RFE/RL, Corp. Records, box 350, folder 5, 1 September 1971, "Memorandum of Conversation (by phone) with James Price, Library of Congress."

Almost blown through the roof: NARA RG 59, Decimal File 862A-411/10-1760, 17 October 1960, cable from Munich, "No. 156, October 17."

152 Louahala says he had nothing: Interview with Louahala.

Jami'at pulled out of Jordan: NARA RG 59, Decimal File 885.46/8-1161, 11 August 1961, "Subject: Letter from Jami'at al Islam (JAI)."

Mahmoud K. Muftic: Letters of 30 March, 17April, and 19 April 1961, von Mende papers.

153 The Germans trusted Balagija: For Balagija's wartime service, see WASt, Schriftverkehrsakte.

An audit of Jami'at's management: NARA RG 59, Decimal File 862A.411/4-242, 24 April 1962, "Subject: Jami'at al Islam audit."

Concerned officials in Munich: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, 7 November 1961, "Betr. Forderung von zwei Projekten des Jami'at al Islam."

Charges that Balagija had: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, 4 December 1961, "Betreff: Zusammenarbeit mit der mohammedanischen Hilfsorganisation Jami'at al Islam."

153 More loyal to the Germans: Letters recounting meetings with Balagija, Sahkul, 27 December 1961 and 2 January 1962, von Mende papers.

154 Jami'at was closing all offices: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, 1 March 1962, "Jami'at al Islam beendet Fluechtlingsprogramme in Europa."

Council of Voluntary Agencies: BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, copy of letter of 6 December 1961, "Strictly Confidential: Attn Mrs. Charlotte B. Owen, Executive Director."

The council was later subsumed by the U.S. Agency for International Development. Its archives are incomplete and do not contain this exchange.

"We've been spared a common worry": BayHStA LafluVerw 2199, 7 March 1962, "Sehr geehrter Dr. Burmeister."

The Burmese opposition leader: Telephone interview with U Kyaw Win, 31 July 2007·

U Kyaw Win, a veteran Burmese opposition figure, was with U Nu when Kamal made the offer in 1969. Kamal later traveled widely in Burma and told U Kyaw Win that he was in regular contact with Burmese opposition leaders.

Plans for a grandiose mosque: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 4 October 1961, "Betreff: Bau einer Moschee in Munchen."

11. Winning the Mosque

155 Kantemir was almost blind: Von Mende's description is in AAPA ZA 105706, 7 July 1961, "Betr.: Alichan Kantemir -- Nordkaukas, Komitee."

"Dear Professor Kegel": Letter of 16 July 1960, Kegel papers.

Finding his way to Turkey and Pakistan: Ramadan's travels detailed in letter of 18 September 1960, Kegel papers.

His fund-raising success: For Ramadan's activities during the Hajj and while raising Saudi money, Kassajep's concerns, and the quotation "Our task is to build a mosque," see BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 21 August 1960, "ProtoKoll Nr. 5."

156 An old battalion commander: WAst records.

Kassajep met with Bavarian officials: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 6 February 1961, "Betreff: Moscheebau in Munchen."

157 Only 78, 890 marks: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 17 February 1961, Kassajep to Burmeister.

Kayum started the trouble: AAPA ZA 105783, 27 March 1961, "Aktenvermerk Betr.: Dr. Hayit/BND."

Less clear is whether Hayit really was a BND informant. In his letter to the BND, von Mende did not dispute this assertion or any of the facts. He only seemed angry that Kayum was aware of them. In addition, it certainly fits with previous French intelligence efforts to recruit Hayit (see notes for Chapter 5). Still, this evidence is only anecdotal. Clearly Hayit thought of himself as a scholar and produced a fairly sizable body of academic work. I asked Hayit if von Mende's offices were affiliated with intelligence services, and he answered, "Not to my knowledge." Because I had not completed my research at the time, I was not aware of these letters and could not ask Hayit directly about Kayum. Hayit has since died.

Salary was another concern: Letter of 23 February 1961, "Lieber Rolf," von Mende files.

A monthly salary of 450 marks: AAPA ZA 105706, 7 July 1961, "Betr.: Veli Kayum-Chan."

158 Implying that Himmat had: AAPA ZA 105707, 12 September 1960, ''Arabische-Kommunistiche Ring im Ausland."

His own international ties: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 27 July 1961, Ramadan to Stain.

Ramadan repeated the figure: Ibid.

He wrote back offering: Ibid.

Namangani had had enough: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 7 November 1961, Namangani to Ramadan.

159 Commission finally met: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 30 November 1961, "Betr.: Information uber den Moscheebau in Munchen."

160 Jordan withdraws passport: This happened no latter than 1965. Swiss records contain a letter from the Jordanian embassy saying Ramada's passport had been revoked. Swiss Ramadan file, 1 October 1965, "Notiz. Said Ramadan."

Enough votes to block Kantemir: Ibid., handwritten note. Decision confirmed in BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 11 January 1962, "Betreff: Bau einer Moschee in Munchen."

161 Council of Islamic Communities and Societies: AAPA ZA 105784, 3 April 1962, "Betr.: Islamischer Rat Deutschlands." Partially also described in Al-Islam, No. 5, 1962, "Gelebter Islam -- Bruderschaft und Einigkeit." p. 1, and "Rat Islamischer Gemeinden und Gemeinschaften." p. 7.

162 The Muslim World League: On Schmiede's participation on the trip to Mecca, ibid. Schmiede is still alive but refused to be interviewed.

On the conference as a whole, the most reliable description, including a list of key participants and an analysis of coalitions, is found in Schulze, Internationalismus, pp. 181-212.

Muslims in West Germany: For this, and the Saudi visit to West Germany, see AAPA ZA 105706, 6 July 1962, "Islamische Weltkongresse."

163 His ally Mahmoud K. Muftic: Letter of 29 May 1962, von Mende to Ungermann, von Mende papers.

The most dangerous time: BAR Ramadan, 26 October 1962, "Attentatsplans gegen Dr. Said Ramadan."

A concealable handgun: BAR Ramadan, 15 August 1962, interrogation of Gailan Ramiz.

One of its best Muslim agitators: Interview with Sultan, 28 March 2006.

Philadelphia's venerable International House: "Modern Forms of Colonialism." Sultan papers. The talk is also on the house's list of events for March 1961.

164 "The report fulfilled its objective": Paper, no date, To: Mr. I. Patch. From: G. Sultan. Subject: Report on "The Modern Forms of Colonialism." International House, Philadelphia.

Sultan went to Cairo: Copy of speech in Sultan papers.

165 Mailed Ahmad a $200 check: Letter of 5 April 1962, Sultan to Ahmad, "My dear Dr. Ahmad." Sultan papers.

Committee for Self-Determination: Technically, Sultan shouldn't have done this. According to an agreement between Amcomlib and the National Committee for a Free Europe, Amcomlib was supposed to focus on Muslim parts of the world; but for whatever reason, Sultan claimed to be working for the other group. 2 October 1961, "Memorandum to: Director, Special Projects Division. From: Garip Sultan. Subject: Talk with Mr. Pavlovich of the Free Europe Committee." Sultan papers.

Getting Sultan an invitation: For Ahmad's offer to help arrange the invitation, see letter of 22 March 1962, Ahmet to Sultan, "My dear Garip." Sultan papers.

But he promised to lobby: Letter of 18 April 1961, Ahmad to Sultan, "My dear Garip Sultan." Sultan papers.

Sultan then contacted Ramadan: Interviews with Sultan.

The sole U.S. representative: Official list of delegates, Sultan papers.

West Germany should go ahead: For von Mende's thoughts and suggestions about the mosque, see AAPA ZA 105735, 14 December 1961, "Betr.: Moscheebau-Kommission in Munchen."

166 West Germany's generosity: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 22 March 1962, "Betreff: Bau einer Moschee in Munchen, Zu Ihrem Schreiben vom 11.3-1962."

St. Paul's Church-where the whole idea: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 10 September 1963, "Betreff: Religiose Betreuung der mohammedanischen Fluchtlinge."

The old SS imam finally: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 19 March 1962, Namangani's one-page cover letter to Burmeister, "Sehr geehrter Herr Regierungsdirektor." and accompanying seven-page "Erklarung."

Namangani's letter was cast in perfect bureaucratic German and likely was written by Margaret Kassajep, Hassan Kassajep's wife. She wrote much of the men's correspondence but could not remember the specifics of this letter. Interview with Margaret Kassajep, 17 August 2004, Munich.

167 Some surviving students: For example, the interview with Mogaddedi. He said Namangani was initially respected not for his training in Islam but because he was von Mende's man, and the students knew how influential von Mende was.

Gacaoglu reminded the community: BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, letter of 14 June 1963, Gacaoglu to Hergl, "Sehr geehrter Herr Regierungsdirektor!"

12. Losing Control

169 A bit of doggerel: Interview with West. Karin West also tape-recorded the speeches and toasts. The citations are taken from this recording. Thanks to Denis Johnson for making the poetry scan.

171 Letter to Arthur Schlesinger Jr.: NARA RG 59, Decimal File 885.41311-1762, cover letter of 17 January 1962, Schlesinger to Talbot, including two-page letter of 24 November 1961, Ramadan to Schlesinger, as well as original and translation of Ramadan's article "Choice for the Middle East: Communism or Islam?," undated, from La Tribune de Geneve.

172 Lose contact with Ramadan: Interview with Klump.

Deployed to Vietnam: I am indebted to Professor Richard H. Shultz Jr. of the Fletcher School at Tufts University for a copy of his interview with Dreher. Shultz wrote an analysis of MACVSOG based on interviews and access to CIA papers. Dreher says in the interview that he and his U.S. team had little idea of what the South Vietnamese were broadcasting or its value.

173 In 1972 Dreher retired: Taken from Dreher resume, Dreher papers.

Von Mende wrote to Sultan: Letter of 6 September 1962, von Mende to Sultan, "Lieber Herr Sultan!," Sultan papers.

174 "He was known as a Nazi": Interview with Richard Pipes, 25 October 2006, Cambridge, MA.

In early 1963, the ex-soldiers: For changes in the mosque project, see Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten (Sonderband) VR 6256, Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland e.V. List of members "Erganzung Nr. 1zum Protokoll der Generalversammlung v. 3.2.1963." For the commission's name change, see "Erganzung Nr. 2 zum Protokoll der Generalversamlung v. 3.2.1963."

Ali Kantemir: For von Mende's attempt to erase evidence of their relationship, see AAPA ZA 105730, 24 July 1963, "Betr.: Nachlass von Herm Alichan Kantemir."

Von Mende's impotence: Letter of 23 October 1963, "Sehr verehrter Herr Professor!," von Mende papers.

175 Infiltrated a Muslim student group: The group was the Islamische Studentengemeinde in K61n. It received six thousand marks, and von Mende had planned another payment, this time of four thousand marks, but he died before he could arrange it. His successors recommended not paying the balance. AAPA ZA 105708, 24 December 1963, "Betr.: Ubersicht der vorhandenen Mittel des Forschungdienstes Osteuropa."

The Stasi seemed to take: BStU, MfS HA I1/5B, Reg. Nr. 2293/60, 16 January 1962.

Told him to tone down: AAPA ZA 105730, letter of 12 December 1963, von Mende to Hayit, "Lieber Baymirza!"

Ordered him to stop smoking: Interview with Erling von Mende.

A massive heart attack: AAPA ZA 105706, 13 January 1964, "Betr.: Beerdigungskosten fur Herm Professor von Mende."

176 The foreign ministry agreed: AAPA ZA 105706, 15 January 1964, "Betr.: Beerdigungskosten des am 16.12.1963 verstorbenen Leiters des Forschungsdienstes Osteuropa, Professor von Mende."

Siegfried Ungermann: AA B40 Band 51, 21 January 1964, "Lieber Herr Wickert!

Decided to close the operation: AA B40 Band 51, 12 June 1964, "Betr.: Auflosung des Forschungsdienstes Osteuropa, Hier: Raumung der Parterrewohnung in der Cecilienallee 52."

Precipitated an ugly scene: Ibid.

Asked if she could use the name: AA B40 Band 52, letter of 2 June 1965, Unglaube to Dr. Lane, "Sehr geehrter Herr Dr. Lane!"

Officials worried that the mass: AA B40 Band 51, 9 October 1964, "Betr.: Sicherungsmaßnahmen des Buros in Dusseldorf."

177 Von Mende's use of Muslims: Alexei, Soviet Nationalities in German Wartime Strategy, 1941-1945, p. iii.

13. The Brotherhood Triumphant

181 The sixth in all of West Germany: By 1973, Berlin had two mosques, Hamburg one, Frankfurt one, and Aachen one. Of course, the country had numerous prayer rooms.

Something appealing but affordable: Interview with Yazdani, 28 January 2005.

182 Ramadan was so influential: From the memoirs of Yusuf al-Qaradawi, according to Mshari Al-Zaydi: "History of the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood, Part One." Asharq Alawsat. Online English edition: http://www.aawsat.com/english/ news.asp?section=3&id=3204.

The Muslim World League asked: Schulze, Internationalismus, pp. 247-48.

Held a diplomatic passport: BAR Ramadan, 23 September 1970, untitled interview with Ramadan.

Traveled on a Pakistani passport: Swiss police records show he began using a Pakistani passport no later than 1980. Swiss Ramadan file, 21 February 1980, "Rapport de Wanner -- inspecteur."

183 "Maybe some new members": Interview with Kamal al-Helbawy, 20 October 2005, London.

"The [students] disgusted him": Interview with Mogaddedi. Mogaddedi also believed that Himmat tried to bring Attar to Munich.

184 "He was in a few meetings": Interview with Himmat.

"What the Arabs are like": Interview with Yazdani, 28 January 2005. This is Yazdani's recollection of Ramadan's words.

Yazdani stepped in to help: Interviews with Yazdani, 28 January and 13 December 2005.

Protests from these embassies: Memo from West German embassy in Baghdad: BayHStA MK 49638, 12 January 1965, "Betr.: Errichtung einer Moschee in Munchen." The Muslim World League and the Turkish embassy in Bonn also complained about the tax status.

185 The cornerstone was laid: See, for example, "Der Muezzin ruft zum Moscheebau," Suddeutsche Zeitung, No. 241, 9 October 1967, p. 13.

186 Yazdani, however, was not present: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten (Sonderband) VR 6256, Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland e.V., 3 November 1973, "Protokoll."

A whispering campaign: Apparently Ibrahim Gacaoglu and his wife were behind these allegations of corruption. The dispute is described from Yazdani's perspective in a letter of 21 July 1970 to the Bavarian social ministry. It seems that the charges went nowhere and, given Gacaoglu's weak credibility, it seems likely that they were not accurate. Copy of letter courtesy of Islam-Archiv Deutschland.

"I have to say that I'm happy": Interview with Yazdani, 28 January 2005.

Turkish guest workers: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten, registered letter of 1 October 1974, "Sehr geehrte Bruder in Islam."

187 In 1975 the Turks tried: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten (Sonderband) VR 6256, Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland e.V., 18 January 1975, "Protokoll."

188 Nada was his opposite: Details of Nada's friendship with Himmat, arrest, and flight to Austria, Tripoli, and Switzerland from interview with Youssef Nada, 2 June 2004, Campione d'Italia. Quotation about torture in prison from interview of Nada on 16 November 2003 by Glenn Simpson of the Wall Street Journal. Thanks to Simpson for making his notes available.

190 Ramadan was officially kicked out: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten (Sonderband) VR 6256, Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland e.V., 3 November 1973, "Protokoll."

14. Beyond Munich

192 Brotherhood's "supreme guide": Interview with Mahdi Akef, 14 September 2004, Cairo.

194 "Neo-Muslim Brotherhood": See Kepel, The Prophet and Pharaoh, especially Chapter 4.

Islamic Cultural Centres and Bodies: See Impact International, issue of 25 May-7 June 1973, p. 3.

195 The Swiss lakeside resort: Muhammad Shafiq, The Growth of Islamic Thought in North America: Focus on Ismail Raji al Faruqi, pp. 27-28. "Hosted by Mahmoud Abu Sa'ud, it was attended by such well-known figures as Isma'il al Faruqi, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, Taha al'Alwani, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Muhammad al Mubarak, Jamaluddin Atia, Abdul Halim M. Ahmad, al Mahdi Ben Abbud, Ahmad Totonji, Mahmud Rashdan, Khurshid Ahmad, Jamal Barzinji, Ahmad al Assai, Ja'far Shaikh Idris, and many others."

Some reports state that the meeting was held in Nada's own home. In June 2003, for example, Soliman Biheri, an Egyptian businessman, told U.S. customs agents that "he had heard of a famous Islamic conference in Lugano, Switzerland." Mr. Biheri said the conference took place in Nada's home and that it "provided a 'blueprint' for much of the worldwide Islamic movements in the 1980s." Department of the Treasury, U.S. Customs Service Report of Investigation, case number dc02pu02dc0005. In an interview (2 June 2004), Nada denied that the meeting took place in his home.

Met in Saudi Arabia: Shafiq, p. 28.

Instructed to open the center: Ibid.

196 Barzinji signed the papers: Ibid.

Barzinji was an officer: Liechtenstein corporate registration, Asat Trust, "Zeichnungerklaerung" of 30 January 1978, "Beschluss."

Barzinji's work for Nada in Saudi Arabia from Glenn Simpson's interview of Nada on 16 November 2003.

He worked for Nada's companies: Ibid. Altalib and Barzinji joined and left the company at the same time.

Nada sponsored him: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten, 3 April 1978, "Protokoll," p. 4. It is not clear if Altalib joined.

Totonji, Barzinji, and Altalib: All three went to Britain to study engineering.

On Totonji, see his Ph.D. dissertation: "Displacement Efficiency in Alcohol Flooding in Relation to Ternary System Phase Behavior." Department of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, 1970. Shelving location: aa 900000009624 Thesis 1970 Totonji, A.

On Altalib, see Hisham Altalib, Training Guide for Islamic Workers.

On Barzinji, see "Islamic Trust to Build Mosque," Indianapolis Star, 5 May 1977.

196 Totonji and others helped found: See http://web.archive.org/web/20030217143532/http://msa-natl.org/about/history.html.

Three of his children: Italian intelligence report, The Intelligence and Democratic Security Service SISDE Counterterrorism Division 96ter, 6396-187-A, Re: "B.J.." Operation Rome, 6 April 1996. In author's possession. Nada confirmed that his children were born in the United States, saying he had "business interests there." Interview with Nada.

Nada apparently helped: Ibid. Also, John Mintz and Douglas Farah, "In Search of Friends Among the Foes," Washington Post, 11 September 2004, p. A01.

The forty-two-acre site: Plans announced by Barzinji in "Islamic Trust to Build Mosque." For size and cost of mosque, see "Proposed Islamic Center Near Plainfield OK'd." Indianapolis Star, 5 March 1978. As headquarters of groups, see William D. Dalton, "Islamic Society of North America." in Encyclopedia of Indianapolis.

It formed the headquarters: For a detailed history of these founders and the Brotherhood's growth, see Steve Merley, "The Muslim Brotherhood in Belgium."

It is interesting to note that Totonji and Barzinji's U.S. Muslim Student Association was a founding member of the Saudi-run International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations (IIFSO). Totonji became the group's general secretary (see http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/2aa9c8845de74ebb05256562005C2813?OpenDocument) and was succeeded by Altalib (see Training Guide for Islamic Workers). Over time, IIFSO morphed into one of the world's most important Muslim groups, the World Assembly of Muslim Youth. Headquartered in Saudi Arabia, it aims to inculcate in young Muslims the ideology of the Saudi Muslim Brotherhood. As the IIFSO website explains, "It was out of the IIFSO's experience of success that the WAMY was born. WAMY was founded in 1972 in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, at an international meeting of Islamic workers involved in youth activities and representatives of youth organizations. It was established to help youth organizations around the world implement their planned projects" (http://web.archive.org/web/19990202092801/www.iifso.org/hist.htm). Totonji and Barzinji were both key players in WAMY. Totonji served as deputy to the first secretary general (http://web.archive.org/web/20030314125221/http:// www.wamy.org/english/conferences/speech6.htm), while Barzinji was listed as a board member, with an address in Saudi Arabia (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/ humanrelations/crisis_in_the_muslim_mind/author.html).

197 Issam al-Attar, the charismatic head: Amtsgericht Munchen, Registerakten (Sonderband) VR 6256, Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland e.V., 4 December 1982, "Protokoll."

198 Its chief, Ahmed al-Rawi: Interview with Ahmed al-Rawi, 21 July 2004, Markfield, UK. Rawi has since retired. See also Ian Johnson, "How Islamic Group's Ties Reveal Europe's Challengem" Wall Street Journal, p. A1. Rawi has subsequently left the FIOE.

199 The "big circle": Rawi identified the countries as Britain, Italy, France, Germany, Spain, and Yugoslavia; two of the countries had two organizations. The federation was made up of organizations from those countries plus Austria, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Rumania, and Switzerland, as well as the single organization that represented the Scandinavian countries. Individuals were not allowed to register.

15. Defining the Debate

202 "Many of you are going": Theodor Marquard, head of the German Liaison Office, cited in Helmut Frangenberg, "Kleine Migrationsgeschichte der Turken nach Koln" in Der Moscheestreit: Eine exemplarische Debatte uber Einwanderung und Integration, p. 72.

In all cases the "guest workers": For a general history of this immigration to West Germany, as well as Europe in general, see Robert J. Pauly Jr., Islam in Europe: Integration or Marginalization? and Jorgen Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe.

203 A sizable number of Muslims: For estimates on the number of Muslims living in western Europe, see Robert S. Leiken, "Europe's Mujahideen," Center for Immigration Studies newsletter, April 2005, p. 5.

206 On the edge of London: I attended the meeting of the European Council for Fatwa and Research, 8-12 July 2004, and heard Hawari's talk. Later, I obtained a transcript and all the working papers. The citations are from the written version of the text.

207 "We should seek to collapse morals": Protocols of the Elders of Zion, as cited by Hawari in "Sex and Sexual Education Under the Light of Islamic Shariah." Translation by Mandi Fahmy. The complete paper is available at www.iandjohnson.com.

208 Available online and published: For online sources, see www.ecfr.org or www.islamonline.org. For books, see two collections of fatwas available for download at http://www.e-cfr.org/en/index.php?cat_id=336. On the council's use of these in training, interview with Amir Zaidan, 18 March 2005, Berlin. See also Alexandre Caeiro, "Transnational 'Ulama,' European Fatwas, and Islamic Authority: A Case Study of the European Council for Fatwa and Research," in Production and Dissemination of Islamic Knowledge in Western Europe.

209 The current head of the organization: For Mahdi Akef's denial of the Holocaust, see the BBC interview at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4554986.stm.

210 Mourad Amriou slowly warmed: Interviews with Mourad Amriou, 10 September, 1 November, and 3 November 2004, Paris.

212 The charismatic preacher Hassan Iquioussen: Interview with Amriou, 10 September 2004. Anti-Semitic tape, "Palestine, Histoire d'une injustice." Thanks to Cecilia Gabizon of Le Figaro for a copy of the tape.

213 Office for Protection of the Constitution: Communication with the office, 25 August 2005.

Influenced by Khurshid Ahmad: For von Denffer's studies and early influences, interview with Ahmad von Denffer, 9 December 2004, Munich.

213 He cofounded a charity: Its name is Muslim Helfen e.V., founded on 5 April 1985 in Lutzelbach, a small town near Frankfurt that is home to another organization, Haus des Islams, with personnel ties to the Munich mosque. See Verfassungsschutzbericht Hessen vom 24.05.2007, S.38. Muslim Helfen's files were later moved to Munich. Amtsgericht Michelstadt, 13 AR 6078/97.

Channeled money to Afghanistan: Ahmad von Denffer, ABC der Zeitschrift al- Islam: Stichwortregister 1958-1992, 1988/5, p. 29, or 198912, p. 3.

214 Expert on Islam alleged: Mohammad Salim Abdullah of the Islam Archiv in Soest, cited in Al-Islam, 1990/7, pp. 3-4. The article implied that Abdullah wasn't a real Muslim.

A conference in Sudan: Al-Islam, 1992/5, p. 2.

The Orient-Institut in Hamburg: Al-Islam, 1997/2, p. 18.

Mahmoud Abouhalima: Denials that Abouhalima and Salim had significant links to the mosque are found in Al-Islam, 2001/6, pp. 16-18.

Mamdouh Mahmud Salim: See Ian Johnson and Alfred Kueppers, "Missed Link," Wall Street Journal.

215 Washington declared Nada and Himmat: http://www.ustreas.gov/press/ releases/p03380.htm.

Lost its status as a charity: Communication with Bavarian officials. Islamic Community of Germany officials confirm that they lost the status but deny it had to do with bookkeeping. They also refused to say why they lost it. Interview with Ibrahim el-Zayat, 19 April 2005, Cologne.

Himmat resigned in early 2002: Registerakten, 13 January 2002, no title on document. Himmat gave the explanation about the frozen accounts in a telephone interview.

16. 1950s Redux

217 Nada sits in regal splendor: Description of his home based on interview with Nada.

218 In hindsight, the charges of terrorism: Some charged that Nada had worked with the Nazis, which is extremely unlikely, given that he was born in 1931. For his date of birth, see http://www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/actions/2001cum.shtml.

Charges that Nada financed: See 31May 2005 press release by Swiss prosecutor's office: "Ordonnance de suspension des recherches."

Nada has relished the role: See Nada's website, http://www.youssefnada.ch/.

219 Herve Terrel strides briskly: This is the only pseudonym in this book. Terrel is a senior official in the French interior ministry. He publishes papers under the name Terrel. Interview with Herve Terrel, 14 May 2004, Paris.

220 The UOIF began to organize: The most direct link is through the AEIF (Association of Islamic Students in France), a group founded by Muhammed C. K. Hamidullah, a cofounder of Ramadan's Geneva center. The AEIF was also close to Issam al-Attar, the former head of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood who settled in the German city of Aachen. According to people familiar with the AEIF's history, such as Mohamed Lahaty (interview, 2 September 2004, Paris), the AEIF was primarily a locally focused group, while the UOIF had international contacts and funding. The AEIF exists in name but is inactive.

Suddenly was thrust into a position: In subsequent elections, the UOIF lost some of its council seats when other groups copied its strategy and mobilized more mosques. But the group remains very influential, holding the vice chairmanship of the central council.

221 Dounia Bouzar: Interview with Dounia Bouzar, 4 September 2004, Paris.

223 A State Department-sponsored conference: Described on the State Department's website: http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-e nglish&y=2006&m=April&x=2006040716241SMVyelwarCo.9064295&t=live feeds/wf-latest.html.

Thought so highly of ISNA: The group claims it co-organized the event. See http://www.isna.net/index.php?id=35&backPID=1&t_news=460.

Michael Privot: See http://www.enar-eu.orglen/info/staff.shtml.

Federation of Islamic Organizations: According to its own website, the youth organization was founded through the direct efforts of the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe: http://P9445.typo3server.info/20.0.html. The Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe is the umbrella group for Muslim Brotherhood organizations in Europe; see Chapter 14.

224 The State Department helped: See http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2006&m=April&x=2006040716241SMVyelwarCo.9064295&t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html.

U.S. ambassador to Belgium: See http://foreign.senate.gov/testimony/2006/ KorologosTestimony060405.pdf.

"Belgium's internal affairs": Unclassified cable sent 12 December 2006, "From: Amembassy Brussels, Subject: Muslim engagement strategy 2006-2007 for Belgium." Reviewed by author.

An Islamic academy: U.S. government involvement was widely reported in the German media and on the website of the U.S. consulate, for example, http://munich.usconsulate.gov/speeches-nelson-09252007.html.

225 "Using American Muslims to reach out": Cable of 17 February 2006, ''Amembassy Berlin" to "Ruehc/Secstate Washdc," ''Assistant Secretary Fried's meetings in Germany."

The prominent political scientist: Robert S. Leiken and Steven Brooke, "The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood," Foreign Affairs.

227 The CIA issued reports: "Muslim Brotherhood: Pivotal Actor in European Political Islam," 10 May 2006, and "Muslim Brotherhood Rhetoric in Europe: Deception, Division, or Confusion?," 29 January 200S. Reviewed by the author.

Called "Muslim Brotherhood": CIA Political Islam Strategic Analysis Program, "Muslim Brotherhood Rhetoric in Europe: Deception, Division or Confusion?" 29 January 2008. Quote from CIA Political Islam Strategic Analysis Program, "Muslim Brotherhood: Pivotal Actor in European Political Islam," p. 2. Documents in the author's possession.

Mazen Asbahi: For details, see www.globalmbreport.com. or Glenn R. Simpson and Amy Chozick, "Obama's Muslim-Outreach Adviser Resigns," Wall Street Journal.

227 International Institute of Islamic Thought: "German Muslim Delegation Visits IIIT," http://www.iiit.org/NewsEvents/News/tabid/62/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/117/German-Muslim-Delegation-Visits- IIIT.aspx.

Head of SLM: Details from Cologne corporate records office, UR. Nr. 1154/1997.

230 It issued a retraction: "Correction: Ibrahim el-Zayat is not a member of the MB," 20 February 2007, http://www.ikhwanweb.com/Article.asp?ID=752&SectionID=121.

231 It's hard to see how Zayat: Oberlandesgericht Munchen, case number 18 U 5181/05.

233 German federal government's Islamkonferenz: "Trojanisches Pferd," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 May 2007, accessed online at http://www.faz.net/s/ RubCF3AEB154CE64960822FA5429AI82360/Doc~E1EA28B0BA6D54481ACE 6C941FB9A167D~ATpl~Ecommon~Scontent.html.

Tarnishing his reputation: "Bundesweite Razzia bei Islamisten," Suddeutsche Zeitung, 11 March 2009, p. 5.

Wired money to the Taibah: BAO-USA report "Underground Banking" by the Federal Police Agency (BKA), UA ZVE /ST 44.

234 Served as a friendly witness: See Oberverwaltungsgericht Rheinland-Pfalz, & A 10953/04.0VG. He wrote a report on behalf of a member of Milli Gorus.

The room exploded in anger: Society of Muslim Social Scientists Annual Meeting' 17 January 2004. Witnessed by author.

Epilogue: Inside the Mosque

236 Ahmad von Denffer: Biographical notes from interview with von Denffer.

237 Khurram Murad: For biographical details, see, for example, http://www.youngmuslims.ca/biographies/display.asp?ID=11.

238 The "affaire des Freres Musulmans": BAR Ramadan, 12 October 1965, "Said Ramadan." For public discussion, see "Des 'Freres musulmans' accuses de complot contre Nasser," La Tribune de Geneve, 11 February 1966, p. 19.

"Said Ramadan is, among others": Quote from BAR Ramadan, 29 June 1967, "Note pour Monsieur Gelzer."

Cooperated closely with Swiss federal police: BAR Ramadan, 17 August 1966, "Notice pour Monsieur Probst."

He got a letter: See http://www.messageonline.org/malcolmxlcover6.htm.

Soviet newspapers alleged: Aziya i Afrika Segodnya, No. 8, August 1966. Translated in CIA Foreign Documents Division, SP-1256, 27 September 1966, CIA declassified files, approved for release: CIA-RDP75-00001 R000300580002-0.

239 American convert, Dawud Salah uddin: Interview with Salahuddin.

A touching essay: Islam, the West, and the Challenges of Modernity, p. vii.

Kayum led the Turkestanis: See BayHStA LafluVerw 1900, 5 October 1967, "Vormerkung."

Attacks in the Soviet press: Izvestia, 29 September 1968. Along with a nine-page rebuttal by Hayit. Narzikul personal papers, courtesy of Crane.

240 His deputy, Walter Schenk: Schenk, pp. 341ff.

He and Gacaoglu continued: BayStA LafluVerw 1909, 7 July 1969, "Betreff: Religionsgemeinschaft Islam e.V."

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